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While women's evolving contribution to entrepreneurship is irrefutable, in almost all nations, gender disparity is an existing reality of entrepreneurship. Social and economic outcomes make women entrepreneurship an important area for scholars and governments. In attempts to find reasons for this gender disparity, academic scholars evaluated various factors and recognised perceptual variables as having outstanding explanatory value in understanding women's entrepreneurship. To advance our knowledge of gender disparity in entrepreneurship, the present study explores the influence of entrepreneurial perceptual variables on women's entrepreneurship and considers the critical role of country-level institutional contexts on the women's entrepreneurial propensity. Therefore, this study examines the impact of perceptual variables in different nations. It also offers connections between entrepreneurial perceptions, women entrepreneurship, and institutional contexts as a critical topic for future studies.
Drawing on the importance of perceptual factors, this dissertation investigates whether and how their perception of entrepreneurial networks influences the individuals' decision to initiate a new venture. Prior scholars considered exposure to entrepreneurial role models as one of the most influential factors on the women's inclination towards entrepreneurship; thus, a systemized analysis makes it possible to identify existing research gaps related to this perception. Hence, to draw a clear picture of the relationship between entrepreneurial role models and entrepreneurship, this dissertation provides a systemized overview of prior studies. Subsequently, Chapter 2 structures the existing literature on entrepreneurial role models and reveals that past literature has focused on the different types of role models, the stage of life at which the exposure to role models occurs, and the context of the exposure. Current discourse argues that the women's lower access to entrepreneurial role models negatively influences their inclination towards entrepreneurship.
Additionally, although the research on women entrepreneurship has proliferated in recent years, little is known about how entrepreneurial perceptual variables form women's propensity towards entrepreneurship in various institutional contexts. The work of Koellinger et al. (2013), hereafter KMS, is one of the most influential papers that investigated the influence of perceptual variables, and it showed that a lower rate of women entrepreneurship is associated with a lower level of their entrepreneurial network, perceived entrepreneurial capability, and opportunity evaluation and with a higher fear of entrepreneurial failure. Thus, this dissertation replicates the work of KMS. Chapter 3 explicitly investigates the influence of the above perceptions on women's entrepreneurial propensity. This research has drawn data from the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor, a cross-national individual-level data set (2001-2006) covering 236,556 individuals across 17 countries. The results of this chapter suggest that gender disparities in entrepreneurial propensity are conditioned by differences in entrepreneurial perceptual variables. Women's lower levels of perceived entrepreneurial capability, entrepreneurial role models and opportunity evaluation and their higher fear of failure lead to lower entrepreneurial propensity.
To extend and generalise the relationship between perceptions and women's entrepreneurial propensity, in Chapter 4, two studies are conducted based on replicated research. Extension 1 generalises the results of KMS by using the same analysis on more recent data. Accordingly, this research implemented the same analysis on 372,069 individuals across the same countries (2011-2016). The recent data show that although gender disparity became significantly weaker, the gender gap is still in men's favour. However, similarly to the replicated study, this research revealed that perceptual factors explain a larger part of the gender disparity. To strengthen prior empirical evidence, in extension 2, utilising a sample of 1,029,863 individuals from 71 countries (2011-2016), the study conducted the same measures and analysis in a more global setting. By including developing countries, gender disparity in entrepreneurial propensity decreased significantly. The study revealed that the relative significance of the influences of perceptions' differs significantly across nations; however, perceptions have a worldwide effect. Moreover, this research found that the ratio of nascent women entrepreneurs in less developed countries to those in more developed nations is 2. More precisely, a higher level of economic development negatively influences the impact of perceptions on women's entrepreneurial propensity.
Whereas prior scholars increasingly underlined the importance of perceptions in explaining a large part of gender disparities in entrepreneurship, most of the prior investigations focused on nascent (early-stage) entrepreneurship, and evidence on the relationship between perceptions and other types of self-employment, such as innovative entrepreneurship, is scant. Innovation is a confirmed key driver of a firm's sustainability, higher competitive capability, and growth. Therefore, Chapter 5 investigates the influence of perceptions on women's innovative entrepreneurship. The chapter points out that entrepreneurial perceptions are the main determinants of the women's decision to offer a new product or service. This chapter also finds that women's innovative entrepreneurship is associated with the country's specific economic setting.
Overall, by underlining the critical role of institutional contexts, this dissertation provides considerable insights into the interaction between perceptions and women entrepreneurship, and its results have implications for policymakers and practitioners, who may find it helpful to consider women entrepreneurship in systemized challenges. Formal and informal barriers affect women's entrepreneurial perceptions and can differ from one country to the other. In this sense, it is crucial to design operational plans to mitigate formal and stereotypical challenges, and thus, more women will be able to start a business, particularly in developing countries in which women significantly comprise a smaller portion of the labour markets. This type of policy could write the "rules of the game" such that these rules enhance the women's propensity towards entrepreneurship.
The goal of this thesis is to transfer the logarithmic barrier approach, which led to very efficient interior-point methods for convex optimization problems in recent years, to convex semi-infinite programming problems. Based on a reformulation of the constraints into a nondifferentiable form this can be directly done for convex semi- infinite programming problems with nonempty compact sets of optimal solutions. But, by means of an involved max-term this reformulation leads to nondifferentiable barrier problems which can be solved with an extension of a bundle method of Kiwiel. This extension allows to deal with inexact objective values and subgradient information which occur due to the inexact evaluation of the maxima. Nevertheless we are able to prove similar convergence results as for the logarithmic barrier approach in the finite optimization. In the further course of the thesis the logarithmic barrier approach is coupled with the proximal point regularization technique in order to solve ill-posed convex semi-infinite programming problems too. Moreover this coupled algorithm generates sequences converging to an optimal solution of the given semi-infinite problem whereas the pure logarithmic barrier only produces sequences whose accumulation points are such optimal solutions. If there are certain additional conditions fulfilled we are further able to prove convergence rate results up to linear convergence of the iterates. Finally, besides hints for the implementation of the methods we present numerous numerical results for model examples as well as applications in finance and digital filter design.
Many combinatorial optimization problems on finite graphs can be formulated as conic convex programs, e.g. the stable set problem, the maximum clique problem or the maximum cut problem. Especially NP-hard problems can be written as copositive programs. In this case the complexity is moved entirely into the copositivity constraint.
Copositive programming is a quite new topic in optimization. It deals with optimization over the so-called copositive cone, a superset of the positive semidefinite cone, where the quadratic form x^T Ax has to be nonnegative for only the nonnegative vectors x. Its dual cone is the cone of completely positive matrices, which includes all matrices that can be decomposed as a sum of nonnegative symmetric vector-vector-products.
The related optimization problems are linear programs with matrix variables and cone constraints.
However, some optimization problems can be formulated as combinatorial problems on infinite graphs. For example, the kissing number problem can be formulated as a stable set problem on a circle.
In this thesis we will discuss how the theory of copositive optimization can be lifted up to infinite dimension. For some special cases we will give applications in combinatorial optimization.
Arctic and Antarctic polynya systems are of high research interest since extensive new ice formation takes place in these regions. The monitoring of polynyas and the ice production is crucial with respect to the changing sea-ice regime. The thin-ice thickness (TIT) distribution within polynyas controls the amount of heat that is released to the atmosphere and has therefore an impact on the ice-production rates. This thesis presents an improved method to retrieve thermal-infrared thin-ice thickness distributions within polynyas. TIT with a spatial resolution of 1 km × 1 km is calculated using the MODIS ice-surface temperature and atmospheric model variables within the Laptev Sea polynya for the winter periods 2007/08 and 2008/09. The improvement of the algorithm is focused on the surface-energy flux parameterizations. Furthermore, a thorough sensitivity analysis is applied to quantify the uncertainty in the thin-ice thickness results. An absolute mean uncertainty of -±4.7 cm for ice below 20 cm of thickness is calculated. Furthermore, advantages and drawbacks using different atmospheric data sets are investigated. Daily MODIS TIT composites are computed to fill the data gaps arising from clouds and shortwave radiation. The resulting maps cover on average 70 % of the Laptev Sea polynya. An intercomparison of MODIS and AMSR-E polynya data indicates that the spatial resolution issue is essential for accurately deriving polynya characteristics. Monthly fast-ice masks are generated using the daily TIT composites. These fast-ice masks are implemented into the coupled sea-ice/ocean model FESOM. An evaluation of FESOM sea-ice concentrations is performed with the result that a prescribed high-resolution fast-ice mask is necessary regarding the accurate polynya location. However, for a more realistic simulation of other small-scale sea-ice features further model improvements are required. The retrieval of daily high-resolution MODIS TIT composites is an important step towards a more precise monitoring of thin sea ice and sea-ice production. Future work will address a combined remote sensing " model assimilation method to simulate fully-covered thin-ice thickness maps that enable the retrieval of accurate ice production values.
Structured Eurobonds - Optimal Construction, Impact on the Euro and the Influence of Interest Rates
(2020)
Structured Eurobonds are a prominent topic in the discussions how to complete the monetary and fiscal union. This work sheds light on several issues going hand in hand with the introduction of common bonds. At first a crucial question is on the optimal construction, e.g. what is the optimal common liability. Other questions that arise belong to the time after the introduction. The impact on several exchnage rates is examined in this work. Finally an approximation bias in forward-looking DSGE models is quantified which would lead to an adjustment of central bank interest rates and therefore has an impact on the other two topics.
This dissertation focuses on the link between labour market institutions and precautionary savings. It is evaluated whether private households react to changes in social insurance provision such as the income replacement in case of unemployment by increased savings for precautionary reasons. The dissertation consists of three self-contained chapters, each focusing on slightly different aspects of the topic. The first chapter titled "Precautionary saving and the (in)stability of subjective earnings uncertainty" empirically looks at the influence of future income uncertainty on household saving behavior. Numerous cross-section studies on precautionary saving use subjective expectations regarding the income variance one year ahead as a proxy for income uncertainty. Using such proxies observed only at one point in time, however, may give rise to biased estimates for precautionary wealth if expectations are not stable over time. Survey data from the Dutch DNB Household Survey suggest that subjective future income distributions are not stable over the mid-term. Moreover, in this study I contrast estimates of precautionary wealth using the variation coefficient observed at one point in time with those using a simple mid-term average. Estimates of precautionary wealth based on the average are about 40% to 80% higher than the estimates using the variation coefficient observed only once. In addition to that, wealth accumulation for precautionary reasons is estimated for different parts of the income distribution. The share of precautionary wealth is highest for households at the center of the income distribution. By linking saving behaviour with unemployment insurance, the following chapters then shed some light on an issue that has largely been neglected in the literature on labour market institutions so far. Whereas the third chapter models the relevance of unemployment insurance for income uncertainty and intertemporal decision making during institutional reform processes, chapter 4 seeks to establish empirically a relationship between saving behavior and unemployment insurance. Social insurance, especially unemployment insurance, provides agents with income insurance against not marketable income risks. Since the early 1990s, reform measures like more activating policies as suggested by the OECD Jobs Study in 1994 have been observed in Europe. In the third chapter it is argued that such changes in unemployment insurance reduce public insurance and increase income uncertainty. Moreover, a simple three period model is discussed which shows a link between a welfare state reform and agents' saving decisions as one possible reaction of agents to self-insure against income risk. Two sources of uncertainty seem to be important in this context: (1) uncertain results of the reform process concerning the replacement rate, and (2) uncertainty regarding the timing of information about the content of the reform. It can be shown that the precautionary motive for saving explains an increased accumulation of capital in times of reform activities. In addition to that, early information about the expected replacement rate increases agents' utility and reduces under and oversaving. Following the argument of the previous chapters, that an important feature of labour market institutions in modern welfare states is to provide cash transfers as income replacement in case of unemployment, it is hypothesised that unemployment benefits reduce the motive to save for precautionary reasons. Based on consumer sentiment data from the European Commission's Consumer Survey, chapter four finally provides some evidence that aggregate saving intentions are significantly influenced by unemployment benefits. It can be shown that higher benefits lower the intention to save.
Die vorliegende Promotionsarbeit "Konzept, Aufbau und Probleme eines zweisprachigen (Lerner-)wörterbuchs. Untersuchungen an Hand von Götz Schregles "Deutsch-Arabischem" Wörterbuchs" beschäftigt sich mit einem Thema, das erst in jüngster Zeit in den Fokus linguistischer Analysen gekommen ist und in der Schnittstelle zwischen linguistischer Forschung und lexikographischer Umsetzung anzusiedeln ist. Die Arbeit ist lexikographiegeschichtlich und lexikographiekritisch angelegt. Sie stellt ein Konzept eines zweisprachigen Lernerwörterbuchs für das Sprachenpaar Deutsch-Arabisch, das metalexikographisch und lernerorientiert legitimiert und für ausgewählte Beispielartikel exemplifiziert wird. Durch diesen Theorie-Praxis-Bezug kann einerseits eine Neuorientierung der zweisprachigen Lexikographie Deutsch-Arabisch/Arabisch-Deutsch in Gang gesetzt werden. Andererseits werden durch die Fokussierung auf die Benutzer- und Benutzungsorientierung der Wörterbuchschreibung sowie die Ausarbeitung von Probeartikeln neue direkte Impulse für die Ausarbeitung eines effektiven Lernerwörterbuchs gegeben. Die Arbeit umfasst fünf Hauptkapitel. Das erste Kapitel behandelt den Stand der Forschung und gibt einen geschichtlichen Überblick über die Lexikographie mit Arabisch. Das zweite Kapitel beschäftigt sich ausführlich mit der Darstellung und Kritik der bisherigen Wörterbücher des Sprachenpaars Deutsch-Arabisch. Im dritten Kapitel wird auf die Grundfragen der Lernerlexikographie eingegangen. Das vierte Kapitel enthält ein neues Konzept eines Lernerwörterbuchs für das Sprachenpaar Deutsch-Arabisch. Die Arbeit wird mit einer Zusammenfassung und einem ausführlichen Literaturverzeichnis abgeschlossen.
Stress represents a significant problem for Western societies inducing costs as high as 3-4 % of the European gross national products, a burden that is continually increasing (WHO Briefing, EUR/04/5047810/B6). The classical stress response system is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis which acts to restore homeostasis after disturbances. Two major components within the HPA axis system are the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR). Cortisol, released from the adrenal glands at the end of the HPA axis, binds to MRs and with a 10 fold lower affinity to GRs. Both, impairment of the HPA axis and an imbalance in the MR/GR ratio enhances the risk for infection, inflammation and stress related psychiatric disorders. Major depressive disorder (MDD) is characterised by a variety of symptoms, however, one of the most consistent findings is the hyperactivity of the HPA axis. This may be the result of lower numbers or reduced activity of GRs and MRs. The GR gene consists of multiple alternative first exons resulting in different GR mRNA transcripts whereas for the MR only two first exons are known to date. Both, the human GR promoter 1F and the homologue rat Gr promoter 1.7 seem to be susceptible to methylation during stressful early life events resulting in lower 1F/1.7 transcript levels. It was proposed that this is due to methylation of a NGFI-A binding site in both, the rat promoter 1.7 and the human promoter 1F. The research presented in this thesis was undertaken to determine the differential expression and methylation patterns of GR and MR variants in multiple areas of the limbic brain system in the healthy and depressed human brain. Furthermore, the transcriptional control of the GR transcript 1F was investigated as expression changes of this transcript were associated with MDD, childhood abuse and early life stress. The role of NGFI-A and several other transcription factors on 1F regulation was studied in vitro and the effect of Ngfi-a overexpression on the rat Gr promoter 1.7 in vivo. The susceptibility to epigenetic programming of several GR promoters was investigated in MDD. In addition, changes in methylation levels have been determined in response to a single acute stressor in rodents. Our results showed that GR and MR first exon transcripts are differentially expressed in the human brain, but this is not due to epigenetic programming. We showed that NGFI-A has no effect on endogenous 1F/1.7 expression in vitro and in vivo. We provide evidence that the transcription factor E2F1 is a major element in the transcriptional complex necessary to drive the expression of GR 1F transcripts. In rats, highly individual methylation patterns in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN) suggest that this is not related to the stressor but can rather be interpreted as pre-existing differences. In contrast, the hippocampus showed a much more uniform epigenetic status, but still is susceptible to epigenetic modification even after a single acute stress suggesting a differential "state‟ versus "trait‟ regulation of the GR gene in different brain regions. The results of this thesis have given further insight in the complex transcriptional regulation of GR and MR first exons in health and disease. Epigenetic programming of GR promoters seems to be involved in early life stress and acute stress in adult rats; however, the susceptibility to methylation in response to stress seems to vary between brain regions.
Untersuchungsgegenstand der Arbeit bildete die politische Bedeutung der spanischen Sprache in den Niederlanden unter Philipp II., der als König Kastiliens in Personalunion zugleich Landesherr der niederländischen Provinzen war. Das Corpus, das untersucht wurde (hauptsächlich der Briefwechsel zwischen den Regierungsstellen in Brüssel und Madrid), zeigt, daß die Wahl der Sprache wesentlich häufiger von politisch-ideologischen Faktoren bestimmt war, als dies von der Forschung bisher wahrgenommen wurde. Bereits 1562 — als die Auseinandersetzungen zwischen Philipp II. und den Adligen in den Niederlanden in eine neue Phase traten — wurden das Italienische und das Spanische in der Form eines "zweiten Verbindungskanals" in die Korrespondenz zwischen der Landvogtin Margarete von Parma und dem König eingeführt, in welcher fortan Angelegenheiten größerer Wichtigkeit diskutiert wurden. Seit der Ankunft des Herzogs Alba im Jahre 1567 ist dieser inoffizielle Briefwechsel ausschließlich in Spanisch gehalten und entwickelte sich verstärkt zu einem herausragenden Instrument, um die Macht der niederländischen Regierungsstellen zu untergraben. Hatten die niederländischen Adligen vor dem Aufstand nichts dabei gefunden, sich des Spanischen zu bedienen, wenn es ihren Zwecken nützte, so änderte sich diese Haltung besonders nach der Ankunft Herzog Albas im Jahre 1567: die Sprachwahl wurde fortan eher von strategischen Faktoren determiniert und der Gebrauch der spanischen Sprache wurde aus ideologischen beziehungsweise propagandistischen Gründen negativ bewertet. Besonders innerhalb der Oberklasse und bei denjenigen Niederländern, die aus politischen oder beruflichen Gründen außerhalb der Siebzehn Provinzen lebten, wuchs die Zahl derer, welche die Niederlande als Einheit wahrnahmen und zugleich ihrer Muttersprache einen höheren Wert zuerkannten. Die Anhänger des Aufstandes instrumentalisierten ihre eigene Sprache als eine Waffe und ein Argument gegen die "spanische Vorherrschaft". Zugleich gab es einige — allerdings unvollendete — Pläne Philipps II. durch Einrichtung eines spanischen Lehrstuhles an der Universität Löwen oder eines Austauschprogramms für Studenten in Salamanca und Leuven für die Verbreitung seiner Muttersprache zu sorgen und somit "Sprachpolitik" zu betreiben. Ein weiteres Kapitel der Arbeit ist der Sprachpolitik in der Schweiz und Frankreich im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert gewidmet. In Übereinstimmung mit dem oben zitierten Zeitgenossen Tomaso Campanella kann das Ergebnis der Arbeit folgendermaßen umschrieben werden: Drei Instrumente sind nötig, um Staaten zu erwerben und zu erhalten: Sprache, Militär und Geld.
A. F. Bluntschli studierte in Zürich bei Gottfried Semper. 1863 ging er nach Florenz, im folgenden Jahr an die Ecole des Beaux-Arts Paris. 1866 zog er nach Heidelberg und 1870 nach Frankfurt am Main. Dort unterhielt er mit C. J. Mylius ein erfolgreiches Architekturbüro. Von 1881 bis 1914 lehrte Bluntschli am Züricher Polytechnikum. Bereits vor Abschluss des Studiums hatte er sich "Renaissance" als Lebensmotto gewählt. Auf dem Höhepunkt seines Schaffens war Bluntschli eine international anerkannte Autorität. Als er 1930 starb galt sein Å’vre als unzeitgemäß. Der seiner Bedeutung keinesfalls gerecht werdenden Beachtung in der Literatur steht bisher nicht ausgewertetes Material in selten reichem Umfang gegenüber. Dieses wird vorgestellt und ausgehend davon gezeigt, daß Bluntschli in einer Breite wie kaum ein anderer über Jahrzehnte zur Lösung verschiedenster Gebäudetypen für sich ab der zweiten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts stellende sowie gewandelte oder erweiterte Bauaufgaben beigetragen hat, wobei neueste Entwicklungen stets Berücksichtigung fanden. Priorität hat dabei die Suche nach einer der Aufgabe entsprechenden individuellen Entwicklung von Grundriß und Raumgefüge, was zu neuen Lösungen führt. Stil muss für ihn entwicklungsfähig, an moderne Bedürfnisse anpassbar sein. Alfred Friedrich Bluntschlis Renaissancebegriff trennt nicht streng zwischen den auf "antiken Prinzipien" basierenden Stilen. Seine Position zwischen späterem Klassizismus und Moderne wird von Festhalten an Traditionellem und Offenheit gegenüber "gewachsenem" Neuen, jedoch Ablehnung "ahistorischer" Architektur gekennzeichnet.
Während deutsche Einwanderer sich nur bedingt gegen die Institution der Sklaverei aussprachen, zeigten sie in ihrer Sicht auf African Americans ein weit höheres Maß an Geschlossenheit in ihrer ablehnenden Haltung. Um die Divergenz zwischen der Wahrnehmung von Sklaverei und African Americans sinnvoll zu kontextualisieren und zu erklären, erscheint die Kategorie der race als erhellende Untersuchungseinheit, welche hilft, die einseitige Wahrnehmung auf der menschlichen im Vergleich zur institutionellen Ebene zu beleuchten. Da der Begriff race weit weniger ideologisch belastet ist als der Begriff des Rassismus, bietet er ein Instrument, welches die nötige Offenheit für verschiedene Erklärungsansätze besitzt. Als Arbeitsgrundlage dient dabei die Definition von Stephen Cornell und Douglas Hartman. Die Autoren betonen besonders stark den menschlichen Ursprung der Kategorie race, ein für diese Untersuchung besonders wichtiger Aspekt, weil er auf die soziale Eingebundenheit des Konzepts verweist. Als solches handelt es sich bei race um eine historische Einheit, die Diskussionen und Wandlungen unterworfen war. Menschen schufen diese Kategorie als distinktes Merkmal für eine Gruppe von Menschen, die sie so eindeutig als von sich selbst unterschiedlich darstellten und damit eine möglichst große und eindeutige Differenz schufen. Diese Vorüberlegungen bilden die Basis für den Kontext, in dem die deutschen Einwanderer ihre Unterschiedlichkeit zu schwarzen Menschen wahrnahmen und davon ausgehend diese als Menschen beurteilten, was häufig mit einer Bewertung der Institution der Sklaverei einherging, der viele der in Amerika lebenden African Americans unterworfen waren. Die Divergenz zwischen dem Selbst und dem Gegenüber schlägt sich dabei in den komplementären Konzepten von blackness und whiteness nieder. Im Zusammenhang mit den deutschen Immigranten spielen diese beiden Perspektiven eine wichtige Rolle, weil so die Denkmuster der Deutschen zum Teil aus ihrem Fokus auf das Anderssein ihres Gegenübers, also der blackness, und zum Teil aus dem Gefühl der eigenen besonderen Stellung, also der whiteness, zu erklären sind. Deutsche Einwanderer schlossen sich Argumentationsmustern aus der Literatur oder der Populärwissenschaft in unterschiedlichen Ausprägung sowohl direkt auch indirekt an, was darauf hindeutet, dass sie wohl mit Gedanken um die Thematik blackness bereits schon in der alten Heimat in variierender Intensität konfrontiert worden waren und damit ihre Äußerungen zu schwarzen Menschen, welche sie nach ihrer Ankunft in den USA trafen, auch auf Vorstellungen beruhten, die sie vor einem direkten Kontakt mit Schwarzen geformt hatten. In Anlehnung an die Diskussionen innerhalb der USA zu schwarzen Menschen wurde Blackness für die deutschen Einwanderer zu einer gesellschaftlichen Kategorie, mit der sie sich in unterschiedlichen Intensitätsgraden auseinandersetzten mussten, weil sie potentiell enorme Auswirkungen auf die verschiedensten Aspekte des Lebens haben konnte. Die Institution der Sklaverei als eine auf race basierende Arbeitsform spielte dabei eine wichtige Rolle, weil hier eine institutionalisierte Manifestation der rassistischen Hierarchisierung in der amerikanischen Gesellschaft existierte. Innerhalb dieser hierarchisierten Gesellschaft stellte die Distanzierung von schwarzen Menschen und, damit einhergehend, die Integration in die Gruppe der weißen Amerikaner eine grundlegende Tendenz dar. Die Kategorie whiteness gewann also enorm an Wichtigkeit für die Einwanderer, wobei die sich daraus ergebenden Folgen etwa in wirtschaftlicher Hinsicht nicht unbedingt der Realität entsprechen mussten, sondern auch auf subjektive Wahrnehmungen beschränkt sein konnten. Vor diesem Hintergrund erklärt sich die hohe Zahl der deutschen Immigranten, die eine latente Abneigung oder sogar offene Abscheu gegenüber African Americans zeigte. Dieser Anreiz zur Differenzierung in Weiße und Schwarze war im Zusammenhang mit der Diskussion um die Institution der Sklaverei nicht gegeben, denn dabei ging es vor allem den intellektuellen Deutschen primär um abstrakte Ideen wie Freiheit und Gleichheit, die sie dann ohne oder nur mit geringem Bezug zu schwarzen Menschen diskutierten. Solange also die Distanz zu African Americans und damit die Zugehörigkeit zur Kategorie whiteness gewahrt blieb, konnten die Deutschen ihre Meinungen gegen die Sklaverei äußern. Es ging dann nicht um das Wohl der Schwarzen, sondern um die Institution und die damit verbundenen abstrakten Prinzipien.
External capital plays an important role in financing entrepreneurial ventures, due to limited internal capital sources. An important external capital provider for entrepreneurial ventures are venture capitalists (VCs). VCs worldwide are often confronted with thousands of proposals of entrepreneurial ventures per year and must choose among all of these companies in which to invest. Not only do VCs finance companies at their early stages, but they also finance entrepreneurial companies in their later stages, when companies have secured their first market success. That is why this dissertation focuses on the decision-making behavior of VCs when investing in later-stage ventures. This dissertation uses both qualitative as well as quantitative research methods in order to provide answer to how the decision-making behavior of VCs that invest in later-stage ventures can be described.
Based on qualitative interviews with 19 investment professionals, the first insight gained is that for different stages of venture development, different decision criteria are applied. This is attributed to different risks and goals of ventures at different stages, as well as the different types of information available. These decision criteria in the context of later-stage ventures contrast with results from studies that focus on early-stage ventures. Later-stage ventures possess meaningful information on financials (revenue growth and profitability), the established business model, and existing external investors that is not available for early-stage ventures and therefore constitute new decision criteria for this specific context.
Following this identification of the most relevant decision criteria for investors in the context of later-stage ventures, a conjoint study with 749 participants was carried out to understand the relative importance of decision criteria. The results showed that investors attribute the highest importance to 1) revenue growth, (2) value-added of products/services for customers, and (3) management team track record, demonstrating differences when compared to decision-making studies in the context of early-stage ventures.
Not only do the characteristics of a venture influence the decision to invest, additional indirect factors, such as individual characteristics or characteristics of the investment firm, can influence individual decisions. Relying on cognitive theory, this study investigated the influence of various individual characteristics on screening decisions and found that both investment experience and entrepreneurial experience have an influence on individual decision-making behavior. This study also examined whether goals, incentive structures, resources, and governance of the investment firm influence decision making in the context of later-stage ventures. This study particularly investigated two distinct types of investment firms, family offices and corporate venture capital funds (CVC), which have unique structures, goals, and incentive systems. Additional quantitative analysis showed that family offices put less focus on high-growth firms and whether reputable investors are present. They tend to focus more on the profitability of a later-stage venture in the initial screening. The analysis showed that CVCs place greater importance on product and business model characteristics than other investors. CVCs also favor later-stage ventures with lower revenue growth rates, indicating a preference for less risky investments. The results provide various insights for theory and practice.
Die vorliegende Arbeit liefert eine Kritik der Performativity-of-Economics-Debatte, welcher theoretische Probleme unterstellt werden. Dies betrifft insbesondere Defizite hinsichtlich einer handlungstheoretischen Erschließung und Erklärung ihres Gegenstandes.
Zur Überwindung dieses Problems wird eine Verknüpfung mit dem Mechanism Approach der analytischen Soziologie vorgeschlagen, welcher erstens einen explizit handlungstheoretischen Zugang bietet, zweitens über die Identifikation der zugrundeliegenden sozialen Mechanismen die Entschlüsselung sozialer Dynamiken und Prozesse erlaubt und, drittens, verschiedene Ausprägungen des zu untersuchenden Phänomens (die Performativität ökonomischer Theorien) in Theorien mittlerer Reichweite übersetzen kann. Eine Verbindung wird durch den Mechanismus der Self-fulfilling Theory als spezifische Form der Self-Fulfilling prophecy hergestellt, welche im weiteren Verlauf der Argumentation als Erklärungsinstrument des Mechanism Approach verwendet und dabei kritisch reflektiert wird.
Die handlungsbasierte Erklärung eines spezifischen Typs der Performativität ökonomischer Theorien wird schließlich anhand eines Fallbeispiels – dem Aufstieg und der Verbreitung des Shareholder-Value-Ansatzes und der zugrundeliegenden Agency Theory – empirisch demonstriert. Es kann gezeigt werden, dass mechanismenbasierte Erklärungen zur allgemeinen theoretischen Aufwertung der besagten Debatte beitragen können. Der Mechanismus der Self-fulfilling Theory im Speziellen bietet zur Erklärung des untersuchten Phänomens verschiedene Vor- und Nachteile, kann allerdings als eine theoretische Brücke ebenfalls einen fruchtbaren Beitrag leisten, nicht zuletzt indem er eine differenzierte Betrachtung des Zusammenhangs zwischen starken Formen von Performativität und selbsterfüllenden Prophezeiungen erlaubt.
Dieser Fragebogenstudie im Längsschnittdesign liegen die Antworten von initial 169 stationären Patienten mit chronischen Schmerzen aus der orthopädischen Rehabilitation zugrunde. Anhand dessen wurden Aspekte religiöser Krankheitsverarbeitung bei der psychischen Anpassung an chronische Schmerzen untersucht. An der Verbesserung des körperlichen Befindens über die Zeit zeigte "negatives religiöses Coping" einen inversen Beitrag, der durch die Mediatorvariable "Hilflosigkeit" vermittelt wird. Für "positives religiöses Coping" war kein Beitrag zur Anpassung nachzuweisen. In der Behandlung von Schmerzpatienten gilt es von daher, religiöses Hadern sowie dahinterliegende psychologischen Mechanismen zu berücksichtigen.
Diese Untersuchungen beinhalten eine Diskussion von Hintergründen, Konzepten und Herausforderungen der aktuellen Qualitätsdiskussion im tertiären Tourismusbildungs-system des südlichen Afrikas. Dabei werden Fragen wie: "Welche Aspekte haben in diesen Ländern zu einer verstärkten Fokussierung auf Qualität geführt?", "Inwieweit lassen sich Erkenntnisse zu Qualitätsentwicklungen aus westlichen Industrienationen auf afrikanische Länder wie z.B. Namibia übertragen?", als auch "Welche Qualitätskriterien werden in der tertiären namibischen Tourismusbildungsinstitutionen als wichtig erachtet?" diskutiert. In diesen Untersuchungen wird diskursiv aufgezeigt, dass sich in vielen Ländern des südlichen Afrikas aufgrund rechtlicher Rahmenbedingungen in der tertiären Tourismus-bildung unterschiedliche Qualitätsansätze etablieren konnten. Eine fundierte Analyse der stark wachsenden Tourismusdestination Namibia als ausgewählte Fallstudie dient dabei als Basis zur Erarbeitung eines spezifischen Qualitätsinstruments. Neben einer Analyse der bestehende Situation versuchen diese vorliegenden Untersuchungen, einen konstruktiven Beitrag zur Qualtätsentwicklung in der namibischen tertiären Tourismusbildung zu liefern. So steht denn auch als Ziel die Erarbeitung eines namibiaspezifischen Qualitätsinstrumentes im Mittelpunkt des Interesses. Zu dessen Entwicklung wird als zentrale Methode eine angepasste Form des Delphi-Verfahrens angewendet, bei welchem eine breite Anzahl relevanter Stakeholder der namibischen tertiären Tourismusbildung eingebunden ist.
Internet interventions have gained popularity and the idea is to use them to increase the availability of psychological treatment. Research suggests that internet interventions are effective for a number of psychological disorders with effect sizes comparable to those found in face-to-face treatment. However, when provided as an add-on to treatment as usual, internet interventions do not seem to provide additional benefit. Furthermore, adherence and dropout rates vary greatly between studies, limiting the generalizability of the findings. This underlines the need to further investigate differences between internet interventions, participating patients, and their usage of interventions. A stronger focus on the processes of change seems necessary to better understand the varying findings regarding outcome, adherence and dropout in internet interventions. Thus, the aim of this dissertation was to investigate change processes in internet interventions and the factors that impact treatment response. This could help to identify important variables that should be considered in research on internet interventions as well as in clinical settings that make use of internet interventions.
Study I (Chapter 5) investigated early change patterns in participants of an internet intervention targeting depression. Data from 409 participants were analyzed using Growth Mixture Modeling. Specifically a piecewise model was applied to model change from screening to registration (pretreatment) and early change (registration to week four of treatment). Three early change patterns were identified; two were characterized by improvement and one by deterioration. The patterns were predictive of treatment outcome. The results therefore indicated that early change should be closely monitored in internet interventions, as early change may be an important indicator of treatment outcome.
Study II (Chapter 6) picked up on the idea of analyzing change patterns in internet interventions and extended it by using the Muthen-Roy model to identify change-dropout patterns. A sligthly bigger sample of the dataset from Study I was analyzed (N = 483). Four change-dropout patterns emerged; high risk of dropout was associated with rapid improvement and deterioration. These findings indicate that clinicians should consider how dropout may depend on patient characteristics as well as symptom change, as dropout is associated with both deterioration and a good enough dosage of treatment.
Study III (Chapter 7) compared adherence and outcome in different participant groups and investigated the impact of adherence to treatment components on treatment outcome in an internet intervention targeting anxiety symptoms. 50 outpatient participants waiting for face- to-face treatment and 37 self-referred participants were compared regarding adherence to treatment components and outcome. In addition, outpatient participants were compared to a matched sample of outpatients, who had no access to the internet intervention during the waiting period. Adherence to treatment components was investigated as a predictor of treatment outcome. Results suggested that especially adherence may vary depending on participant group. Also using specific measures of adherence such as adherence to treatment components may be crucial to detect change mechanisms in internet interventions. Fostering adherence to treatment components in participants may increase the effectiveness of internet interventions.
Results of the three studies are discussed and general conclusions are drawn.
Implications for future research as well as their utility for clinical practice and decision- making are presented.
This thesis deals with economic aspects of employees' sickness. In addition to the classical case of sickness absence, in which an employee is completely unable to work and hence stays at home, there is the case of sickness presenteeism, in which the employee comes to work despite being sick. Accordingly, the thesis at hand covers research on both sickness states, absence and presenteeism. The first section covers sickness absence and labour market institutions. Chapter 2 presents theoretical and empirical evidence that differences in the social norm against benefit fraud, so-called benefit morale, can explain cross country diversity in the generosity of statutory sick pay entitlements between developed countries. In our political economy model, a stricter benefit morale reduces the absence rate, with counteracting effects on the politically set sick pay replacement rate. On the one hand, less absence caused by a stricter norm, makes the tax-financed insurance cheaper, leading to the usual demand side effect and hence to more generous sick pay entitlements. On the other hand, being less likely to be absent due to a stricter norm, the voters prefer a smaller fee over more insurance. We document both effects in a sample of 31 developed countries, capturing the years from 1981 to 2010. In Chapter 3 we investigate the relationship between the existence of works councils and illness-related absence and its consequences for plants. Using individual data from the German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP), we find that the existence of a works council is positively correlated with the incidence and the annual duration of absence. Additionally, linked employer-employee data (LIAB) suggests that employers are more likely to expect personnel problems due to absence in plants with a works council. In western Germany, we find significant effects using a difference-in-differences approach, which can be causally interpreted. The second part of this thesis covers two studies on sickness presenteeism. In Chapter 4, we empirically investigate the determinants of the annual duration of sickness presenteeism using the European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS). Work autonomy, workload and tenure are positively related to the number of sickness presenteeism days, while a good working environment comes with less presenteeism. In Chapter 5 we theoretically and empirically analyze sickness absence and presenteeism behaviour with a focus on their interdependence. Specifically, we ask whether work-related factors lead to a substitutive, a complementary or no relationship between sickness absence and presenteeism. In other words, we want to know whether changes in absence and presenteeism behaviour incurred by work-related characteristics point in opposite directions (substitutive), the same direction (complementary), or whether they only affect either one of the two sickness states (no relationship). Our theoretical model shows that the relationship between sickness absence and presenteeism with regard to work-related characteristics is not necessarily of a substitutive nature. Instead, a complementary or no relationship can emerge as well. Turning to the empirical investigation, we find that only one out of 16 work-related factors, namely the supervisor status, leads to a substitutive relationship between absence and presenteeism. Few of the other determinants are complements, while the large majority is either related to sickness absence or presenteeism.
A basic assumption of standard small area models is that the statistic of interest can be modelled through a linear mixed model with common model parameters for all areas in the study. The model can then be used to stabilize estimation. In some applications, however, there may be different subgroups of areas, with specific relationships between the response variable and auxiliary information. In this case, using a distinct model for each subgroup would be more appropriate than employing one model for all observations. If no suitable natural clustering variable exists, finite mixture regression models may represent a solution that „lets the data decide“ how to partition areas into subgroups. In this framework, a set of two or more different models is specified, and the estimation of subgroup-specific model parameters is performed simultaneously to estimating subgroup identity, or the probability of subgroup identity, for each area. Finite mixture models thus offer a fexible approach to accounting for unobserved heterogeneity. Therefore, in this thesis, finite mixtures of small area models are proposed to account for the existence of latent subgroups of areas in small area estimation. More specifically, it is assumed that the statistic of interest is appropriately modelled by a mixture of K linear mixed models. Both mixtures of standard unit-level and standard area-level models are considered as special cases. The estimation of mixing proportions, area-specific probabilities of subgroup identity and the K sets of model parameters via the EM algorithm for mixtures of mixed models is described. Eventually, a finite mixture small area estimator is formulated as a weighted mean of predictions from model 1 to K, with weights given by the area-specific probabilities of subgroup identity.
Die A4-Strategie versucht, eine Antwort auf die Frage zu geben, ob es in der modernen Medienlandschaft optimale und effiziente Kommunikationsstrategien gibt, deren Erfolg nicht von der Höhe des Budgets abhängig ist und die gleichzeitig eine hohe Kundenbindung bewirken und eine effiziente Auswahl der Kommunikationsinstrumente sichert. Dies ist gerade für KMUs von besonderer Bedeutung, die sich in einem komplexen und globalisierten Marktumfeld bewegen. Die Marketingkommunikation ist nicht nur ein unvermeidliches Werkzeug, um die Verkaufszahlen zu steigern. Sie bedarf heutzutage auch einer durchdachten Strategie. Denn es wird erst eine erfolgreiche Interaktion zwischen diesen Partnern (Unternehmen und Kunden) stattfinden, wenn sowohl ein optimaler Unternehmenswert als auch ein Kundenwert generiert wird. Die A4-Strategie hilft zugleich dabei, Antworten auf die für eine optimale Marketingkommunikation relevante Fragen zu finden: Wer kann einkaufen? Wer kauft tatsächlich ein? Was sind die relevanten Informationen über den, der tatsächlich einkauft? Anhand der Antworten auf diese Frage wird ermittelt, wo und wie die potentielle Kundschaft besser akquiriert und wo und wie die bestehende Kundschaft optimal betreut werden kann. Dieses Konzept bietet eine strukturierte Herangehensweise und Vorgehensweise, um eine Kommunikationsstrategie je nach Situation zu entwickeln. Sie ist somit keine fertige Lösung, sondern schafft sie Rahmen für ein methodisches Entscheidungsprozess. Sie hilft zudem situationsadäquat Entscheidungen zu treffen und Handlungen vorzunehmen, die diese Entscheidungen konsequent umzusetzen.
Zurzeit werden gesundheitliche Auswirkungen von Mobilfunkstrahlung auf den Menschen kontroversiell diskutiert. Die vorliegende Arbeit untersuchte mögliche Auswirkungen auf Befindlichkeit und psychische Variablen in zwei Studien. Es zeigte sich ein Trend bei einer Variable, es gab jedoch keine signifikanten Effekte. Bei den nicht-experimentellen Befunden wiesen Anrainer von Mobilfunksendeanlagen (self-rater) höhere psychische Belastung auf.