Nonlocal operators are used in a wide variety of models and applications due to many natural phenomena being driven by nonlocal dynamics. Nonlocal operators are integral operators allowing for interactions between two distinct points in space. The nonlocal models investigated in this thesis involve kernels that are assumed to have a finite range of nonlocal interactions. Kernels of this type are used in nonlocal elasticity and convection-diffusion models as well as finance and image analysis. Also within the mathematical theory they arouse great interest, as they are asymptotically related to fractional and classical differential equations. The results in this thesis can be grouped according to the following three aspects: modeling and analysis, discretization and optimization. Mathematical models demonstrate their true usefulness when put into numerical practice. For computational purposes, it is important that the support of the kernel is clearly determined. Therefore nonlocal interactions are typically assumed to occur within an Euclidean ball of finite radius. In this thesis we consider more general interaction sets including norm induced balls as special cases and extend established results about well-posedness and asymptotic limits. The discretization of integral equations is a challenging endeavor. Especially kernels which are truncated by Euclidean balls require carefully designed quadrature rules for the implementation of efficient finite element codes. In this thesis we investigate the computational benefits of polyhedral interaction sets as well as geometrically approximated interaction sets. In addition to that we outline the computational advantages of sufficiently structured problem settings. Shape optimization methods have been proven useful for identifying interfaces in models governed by partial differential equations. Here we consider a class of shape optimization problems constrained by nonlocal equations which involve interface-dependent kernels. We derive the shape derivative associated to the nonlocal system model and solve the problem by established numerical techniques.

This thesis addresses three different topics from the fields of mathematical finance, applied probability and stochastic optimal control. Correspondingly, it is subdivided into three independent main chapters each of which approaches a mathematical problem with a suitable notion of a stochastic particle system. In Chapter 1, we extend the branching diffusion Monte Carlo method of Henry-Labordère et. al. (2019) to the case of parabolic PDEs with mixed local-nonlocal analytic nonlinearities. We investigate branching diffusion representations of classical solutions, and we provide sufficient conditions under which the branching diffusion representation solves the PDE in the viscosity sense. Our theoretical setup directly leads to a Monte Carlo algorithm, whose applicability is showcased in two stylized high-dimensional examples. As our main application, we demonstrate how our methodology can be used to value financial positions with defaultable, systemically important counterparties. In Chapter 2, we formulate and analyze a mathematical framework for continuous-time mean field games with finitely many states and common noise, including a rigorous probabilistic construction of the state process. The key insight is that we can circumvent the master equation and reduce the mean field equilibrium to a system of forward-backward systems of (random) ordinary differential equations by conditioning on common noise events. We state and prove a corresponding existence theorem, and we illustrate our results in three stylized application examples. In the absence of common noise, our setup reduces to that of Gomes, Mohr and Souza (2013) and Cecchin and Fischer (2020). In Chapter 3, we present a heuristic approach to tackle stochastic impulse control problems in discrete time. Based on the work of Bensoussan (2008) we reformulate the classical Bellman equation of stochastic optimal control in terms of a discrete-time QVI, and we prove a corresponding verification theorem. Taking the resulting optimal impulse control as a starting point, we devise a self-learning algorithm that estimates the continuation and intervention region of such a problem. Its key features are that it explores the state space of the underlying problem by itself and successively learns the behavior of the optimally controlled state process. For illustration, we apply our algorithm to a classical example problem, and we give an outlook on open questions to be addressed in future research.

In common shape optimization routines, deformations of the computational mesh usually suffer from decrease of mesh quality or even destruction of the mesh. To mitigate this, we propose a theoretical framework using so-called pre-shape spaces. This gives an opportunity for a unified theory of shape optimization, and of problems related to parameterization and mesh quality. With this, we stay in the free-form approach of shape optimization, in contrast to parameterized approaches that limit possible shapes. The concept of pre-shape derivatives is defined, and according structure and calculus theorems are derived, which generalize classical shape optimization and its calculus. Tangential and normal directions are featured in pre-shape derivatives, in contrast to classical shape derivatives featuring only normal directions on shapes. Techniques from classical shape optimization and calculus are shown to carry over to this framework, and are collected in generality for future reference. A pre-shape parameterization tracking problem class for mesh quality is in- troduced, which is solvable by use of pre-shape derivatives. This class allows for non-uniform user prescribed adaptations of the shape and hold-all domain meshes. It acts as a regularizer for classical shape objectives. Existence of regularized solu- tions is guaranteed, and corresponding optimal pre-shapes are shown to correspond to optimal shapes of the original problem, which additionally achieve the user pre- scribed parameterization. We present shape gradient system modifications, which allow simultaneous nu- merical shape optimization with mesh quality improvement. Further, consistency of modified pre-shape gradient systems is established. The computational burden of our approach is limited, since additional solution of possibly larger (non-)linear systems for regularized shape gradients is not necessary. We implement and com- pare these pre-shape gradient regularization approaches for a 2D problem, which is prone to mesh degeneration. As our approach does not depend on the choice of forms to represent shape gradients, we employ and compare weak linear elasticity and weak quasilinear p-Laplacian pre-shape gradient representations. We also introduce a Quasi-Newton-ADM inspired algorithm for mesh quality, which guarantees sufficient adaption of meshes to user specification during the rou- tines. It is applicable in addition to simultaneous mesh regularization techniques. Unrelated to mesh regularization techniques, we consider shape optimization problems constrained by elliptic variational inequalities of the first kind, so-called obstacle-type problems. In general, standard necessary optimality conditions cannot be formulated in a straightforward manner for such semi-smooth shape optimization problems. Under appropriate assumptions, we prove existence and convergence of adjoints for smooth regularizations of the VI-constraint. Moreover, we derive shape derivatives for the regularized problem and prove convergence to a limit object. Based on this analysis, an efficient optimization algorithm is devised and tested numerically. All previous pre-shape regularization techniques are applied to a variational inequality constrained shape optimization problem, where we also create customized targets for increased mesh adaptation of changing embedded shapes and active set boundaries of the constraining variational inequality.

Differential equations yield solutions that necessarily contain a certain amount of regularity and are based on local interactions. There are various natural phenomena that are not well described by local models. An important class of models that describe long-range interactions are the so-called nonlocal models, which are the subject of this work. The nonlocal operators considered here are integral operators with a finite range of interaction and the resulting models can be applied to anomalous diffusion, mechanics and multiscale problems. While the range of applications is vast, the applicability of nonlocal models can face problems such as the high computational and algorithmic complexity of fundamental tasks. One of them is the assembly of finite element discretizations of truncated, nonlocal operators. The first contribution of this thesis is therefore an openly accessible, documented Python code which allows to compute finite element approximations for nonlocal convection-diffusion problems with truncated interaction horizon. Another difficulty in the solution of nonlocal problems is that the discrete systems may be ill-conditioned which complicates the application of iterative solvers. Thus, the second contribution of this work is the construction and study of a domain decomposition type solver that is inspired by substructuring methods for differential equations. The numerical results are based on the abstract framework of nonlocal subdivisions which is introduced here and which can serve as a guideline for general nonlocal domain decomposition methods.