This dissertation addresses the measurement and evaluation of the energy and resource efficiency of software systems. Studies show that the environmental impact of Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) is steadily increasing and is already estimated to be responsible for 3 % of the total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Although it is the hardware that consumes natural resources and energy through its production, use, and disposal, software controls the hardware and therefore has a considerable influence on the used capacities. Accordingly, it should also be attributed a share of the environmental impact. To address this softwareinduced impact, the focus is on the continued development of a measurement and assessment model for energy and resource-efficient software. Furthermore, measurement and assessment methods from international research and practitioner communities were compared in order to develop a generic reference model for software resource and energy measurements. The next step was to derive a methodology and to define and operationalize criteria for evaluating and improving the environmental impact of software products. In addition, a key objective is to transfer the developed methodology and models to software systems that cause high consumption or offer optimization potential through economies of scale. These include, e. g., Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) and mobile apps, as well as applications with high demands on computing power or data volumes, such as distributed systems and especially Artificial Intelligence (AI) systems. In particular, factors influencing the consumption of software along its life cycle are considered. These factors include the location (cloud, edge, embedded) where the computing and storage services are provided, the role of the stakeholders, application scenarios, the configuration of the systems, the used data, its representation and transmission, or the design of the software architecture. Based on existing literature and previous experiments, distinct use cases were selected that address these factors. Comparative use cases include the implementation of a scenario in different programming languages, using varying algorithms, libraries, data structures, protocols, model topologies, hardware and software setups, etc. From the selection, experimental scenarios were devised for the use cases to compare the methods to be analyzed. During their execution, the energy and resource consumption was measured, and the results were assessed. Subtracting baseline measurements of the hardware setup without the software running from the scenario measurements makes the software-induced consumption measurable and thus transparent. Comparing the scenario measurements with each other allows the identification of the more energyefficient setup for the use case and, in turn, the improvement/optimization of the system as a whole. The calculated metrics were then also structured as indicators in a criteria catalog. These indicators represent empirically determinable variables that provide information about a matter that cannot be measured directly, such as the environmental impact of the software. Together with verification criteria that must be complied with and confirmed by the producers of the software, this creates a model with which the comparability of software systems can be established. The gained knowledge from the experiments and assessments can then be used to forecast and optimize the energy and resource efficiency of software products. This enables developers, but also students, scientists and all other stakeholders involved in the life cycleof software, to continuously monitor and optimize the impact of their software on energy and resource consumption. The developed models, methods, and criteria were evaluated and validated by the scientific community at conferences and workshops. The central outcomes of this thesis, including a measurement reference model and the criteria catalog, were disseminated in academic journals. Furthermore, the transfer to society has been driven forward, e. g., through the publication of two book chapters, the development and presentation of exemplary best practices at developer conferences, collaboration with industry, and the establishment of the eco-label “Blue Angel” for resource and energy-efficient software products. In the long term, the objective is to effect a change in societal attitudes and ultimately to achieve significant resource savings through economies of scale by applying the methods in the development of software in general and AI systems in particular.

Although universality has fascinated over the last decades, there are still numerous open questions in this field that require further investigation. In this work, we will mainly focus on classes of functions whose Fourier series are universal in the sense that they allow us to approximate uniformly any continuous function defined on a suitable subset of the unit circle. The structure of this thesis is as follows. In the first chapter, we will initially introduce the most important notation which is needed for our following discussion. Subsequently, after recalling the notion of universality in a general context, we will revisit significant results concerning universality of Taylor series. The focus here is particularly on universality with respect to uniform convergence and convergence in measure. By a result of Menshov, we will transition to universality of Fourier series which is the central object of study in this work. In the second chapter, we recall spaces of holomorphic functions which are characterized by the growth of their coefficients. In this context, we will derive a relationship to functions on the unit circle via an application of the Fourier transform. In the second part of the chapter, our attention is devoted to the $\mathcal{D}_{\textup{harm}}^p$ spaces which can be viewed as the set of harmonic functions contained in the $W^{1,p}(\D)$ Sobolev spaces. In this context, we will also recall the Bergman projection. Thanks to the intensive study of the latter in relation to Sobolev spaces, we can derive a decomposition of $\mathcal{D}_{\textup{harm}}^p$ spaces which may be seen as analogous to the Riesz projection for $L^p$ spaces. Owing to this result, we are able to provide a link between $\mathcal{D}_{\textup{harm}}^p$ spaces and spaces of holomorphic functions on $\mathbb{C}_\infty \setminus \s$ which turns out to be a crucial step in determining the dual of $\mathcal{D}_{\textup{harm}}^p$ spaces. The last section of this chapter deals with the Cauchy dual which has a close connection to the Fantappié transform. As an application, we will determine the Cauchy dual of the spaces $D_\alpha$ and $D_{\textup{harm}}^p$, two results that will prove to be very helpful later on. Finally, we will provide a useful criterion that establishes a connection between the density of a set in the direct sum $X \oplus Y$ and the Cauchy dual of the intersection of the respective spaces. The subsequent chapter will delve into the theory of capacities and, consequently, potential theory which will prove to be essential in formulating our universality results. In addition to introducing further necessary terminologies, we will define capacities in the first section following [16], however in the frame of separable metric spaces, and revisit the most important results about them. Simultaneously, we make preparations that allow us to define the $\mathrm{Li}_\alpha$-capacity which will turn out to be equivalent to the classical Riesz $\alpha$-capacity. The $\mathrm{Li}_\alpha$-capacity proves to be more adapted to the $D_\alpha$ spaces. It becomes apparent in the course of our discussion that the $\mathrm{Li}_\alpha$-capacity is essential to prove uniqueness results for the class $D_\alpha$. This leads to the centerpiece of this chapter which forms the energy formula for the $\mathrm{Li}_\alpha$-capacity on the unit circle. More precisely, this identity establishes a connection between the energy of a measure and its corresponding Fourier coefficients. We will briefly deal with the complement-equivalence of capacities before we revisit the concept of Bessel and Riesz capacities, this time, however, in a much more general context, where we will mainly rely on [1]. Since we defined capacities on separable metric spaces in the first section, we can draw a connection between Bessel capacities and $\mathrm{Li}_\alpha$-capacities. To conclude this chapter, we would like to take a closer look at the geometric meaning of capacities. Here, we will point out a connection between the Hausdorff dimension and the polarity of a set, and transfer it to the $\mathrm{Li}_\alpha$-capacity. Another aspect will be the comparison of Bessel capacities across different dimensions, in which the theory of Wolff potentials crystallizes as a crucial auxiliary tool. In the fourth chapter of this thesis, we will turn our focus to the theory of sets of uniqueness, a subject within the broader field of harmonic analysis. This theory has a close relationship with sets of universality, a connection that will be further elucidated in the upcoming chapter. The initial section of this chapter will be dedicated to the notion of sets of uniqueness that is specifically adapted to our current context. Building on this concept, we will recall some of the fundamental results of this theory. In the subsequent section, we will primarily rely on techniques from previous chapters to determine the closed sets of uniqueness for the class $\mathcal{D}_{\alpha}$. The proofs we will discuss are largely influenced by [16, p.\ 178] and [9, pp.\ 82]. One more time, it will become evident that the introduction of the $\mathrm{Li}_\alpha$-capacity in the third chapter and the closely associated energy formula on the unit circle, were the pivotal factors that enabled us to carry out these proofs. In the final chapter of our discourse, we will present our results on universality. To begin, we will recall a version of the universality criterion which traces back to the work of Grosse-Erdmann (see [26]). Coupled with an outcome from the second chapter, we will prove a result that allows us to obtain the universality of a class using the technique of simultaneous approximation. This tool will play a key role in the proof of our universality results which will follow hereafter. Our attention will first be directed toward the class $D_\alpha$ with $\alpha$ in the interval $(0,1]$. Here, we summarize that universality with respect to uniform convergence occurs on closed and $\alpha$-polar sets $E \subset \s$. Thanks to results of Carleson and further considerations, which particularly rely on the favorable behavior of the $\mathrm{Li}_\alpha$-kernel, we also find that this result is sharp. In particular, it may be seen as a generalization of the universality result for the harmonic Dirichlet space. Following this, we will investigate the same class, however, this time for $\alpha \in [-1,0)$. In this case, it turns out that universality with respect to uniform convergence occurs on closed and $(-\alpha)$-complement-polar sets $E \subset \s$. In particular, these sets of universality can have positive arc measure. In the final section, we will focus on the class $D_{\textup{harm}}^p$. Here, we manage to prove that universality occurs on closed and $(1,p)$-polar sets $E \subset \s$. Through results of Twomey [68] combined with an observation by Girela and Pélaez [23], as well as the decomposition of $D_{\textup{harm}}^p$, we can deduce that the closed sets of universality with respect to uniform convergence of the class $D_{\textup{harm}}^p$ are characterized by $(1,p)$-polarity. We conclude our work with an application of the latter result to the class $D^p$. We will show that the closed sets of divergence for the class $D^p$ are given by the $(1,p)$-polar sets.

Die Masterarbeit untersucht den Zusammenhang zwischen Libertarismus und Rechtsextremismus, wobei der Fokus auf der Entwicklung der libertären Szene in Deutschland liegt. Zunächst wird ein ausführlicher theoretischer Teil präsentiert, in dem gezeigt wird, dass zwischen einer radikal wirtschaftsliberalen und einer rechtsextremen Weltauffassung partiell gemeinsame Elemente bestehen. Insbesondere werden ein spezifischer Antiegalitarismus, eine Naturalisierung gesellschaftlicher Sachverhalte sowie eine gemeinsame Feindbildkonstruktion als verbindende Merkmale identifiziert, die beide Ideologien, die auf Ungleichwertigkeitsvorstellungen basieren, prägen. Im Anschluss folgt eine empirische Analyse des libertären Magazins eigentümlich frei, das eine zentrale Rolle in der deutschsprachigen libertären Bewegung spielt. Der soziologische Neo-Institutionalismus dient als theoretische Perspektive, um den institutionellen Wandel innerhalb der libertären Szene zu erfassen und zu analysieren. Die empirische Untersuchung bestätigt die theoretischen Annahmen und zeigt, dass sich im libertären Diskurs eine zunehmende Annäherung an rechtsextreme Ideologien vollzieht. Fünf Phasen des institutionellen Wandels werden identifiziert, die mit einer verstärkten Vernetzung der libertären Bewegung mit dem rechtsextremen Spektrum und der Veränderung von Diskursen einhergehen. Die Arbeit kommt zu dem Schluss, dass die libertäre Szene um eigentlich frei dem rechtsextremen Spektrum zuzuordnen ist. Die Untersuchung schlägt vor, den Libertarismus im Rahmen dieser Entwicklung als „Paläolibertarismus“ zu bezeichnen, was auf eine ideologische Nähe zur Alt-Right-Bewegung hinweist. Zentrale Merkmale dieser Ideologie sind neben einer radikal wirtschaftsliberalen Ausrichtung auch die Forderung nach einer Privatisierung gesellschaftlicher Institutionen und die Etablierung von sozialen Autoritäten wie Familie und Kirche zum Schutz des Individuums vor staatlicher Einflussnahme.

This thesis deals with consumption-investment allocation problems with Epstein-Zin recursive utility, building upon the dualization procedure introduced by [Matoussi and Xing, 2018]. While their work exclusively focuses on truly recursive utility, we extend their procedure to include time-additive utility using results from general convex analysis. The dual problem is expressed in terms of a backward stochastic differential equation (BSDE), for which existence and uniqueness results are established. In this regard, we close a gap left open in previous works, by extending results restricted to specific subsets of parameters to cover all parameter constellations within our duality setting. Using duality theory, we analyze the utility loss of an investor with recursive preferences, that is, her difference in utility between acting suboptimally in a given market, compared to her best possible (optimal) consumption-investment behaviour. In particular, we derive universal power utility bounds, presenting a novel and tractable approximation of the investors’ optimal utility and her welfare loss associated to specific investment-consumption choices. To address quantitative shortcomings of those power utility bounds, we additionally introduce one-sided variational bounds that offer a more effective approximation for recursive utilities. The theoretical value of our power utility bounds is demonstrated through their application in a new existence and uniqueness result for the BSDE characterizing the dual problem. Moreover, we propose two approximation approaches for consumption-investment optimization problems with Epstein-Zin recursive preferences. The first approach directly formalizes the classical concept of least favorable completion, providing an analytic approximation fully characterized by a system of ordinary differential equations. In the special case of power utility, this approach can be interpreted as a variation of the well-known Campbell-Shiller approximation, improving some of its qualitative shortcomings with respect to state dependence of the resulting approximate strategies. The second approach introduces a PDE-iteration scheme, by reinterpreting artificial completion as a dynamic game, where the investor and a dual opponent interact until reaching an equilibrium that corresponds to an approximate solution of the investors optimization problem. Despite the need for additional approximations within each iteration, this scheme is shown to be quantitatively and qualitatively accurate. Moreover, it is capable of approximating high dimensional optimization problems, essentially avoiding the curse of dimensionality and providing analytical results.

In bilevel optimization, some of the variables of an optimization problem have to be an optimal solution to another nested optimization problem. This specific structure renders bilevel optimization a powerful tool for modeling hierarchical decision-making processes, which arise in various real-world applications such as in critical infrastructure defense, transportation, or energy. Due to their nested structure, however, bilevel problems are also inherently hard to solve—both in theory and in practice. Further challenges arise if, e.g., bilevel problems under uncertainty are considered. In this dissertation, we address different types of uncertainties in bilevel optimization using techniques from robust optimization. We study mixed-integer linear bilevel problems with lower-level objective uncertainty, which we tackle using the notion of Gamma-robustness. We present two exact branch-and-cut approaches to solve these Gamma-robust bilevel problems, along with cuts tailored to the important class of monotone interdiction problems. Given the overall hardness of the considered problems, we additionally propose heuristic approaches for mixed-integer, linear, and Gamma-robust bilevel problems. The latter rely on solving a linear number of deterministic bilevel problems so that no problem-specific tailoring is required. We assess the performance of both the exact and the heuristic approaches through extensive computational studies. In addition, we study the problem of determining optimal tolls in a traffic network in which the network users hedge against uncertain travel costs in a robust way. The overall toll-setting problem can be seen as a single-leader multi-follower problem with multiple robustified followers. We model this setting as a mathematical problem with equilibrium constraints, for which we present a mixed-integer, nonlinear, and nonconvex reformulation that can be tackled using state-of-the-art general-purpose solvers. We further illustrate the impact of considering robustified followers on the toll-setting policies through a case study. Finally, we highlight that the sources of uncertainty in bilevel optimization are much richer compared to single-level optimization. To this end, we study two aspects related to so-called decision uncertainty. First, we propose a strictly robust approach in which the follower hedges against erroneous observations of the leader's decision. Second, we consider an exemplary bilevel problem with a continuous but nonconvex lower level in which algorithmic necessities prevent the follower from making a globally optimal decision in an exact sense. The example illustrates that even very small deviations in the follower's decision may lead to arbitrarily large discrepancies between exact and computationally obtained bilevel solutions.